Health Promotion International, Vol. 16, No. 3, 219-227,
September 2001
© Oxford University Press 2001
Promoting health knowledge through micro-credit programmes: experience of BRAC in Bangladesh
Research and Evaluation Division, Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Address for correspondence: Abdullahel Hadi Research and Evaluation Division BRAC Centre 75 Mohakhali Dhaka 1212 Bangladesh E-mail: shirsha{at}bangla.net
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SUMMARY |
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This paper aims to assess the contribution of the micro-credit programme in raising health knowledge among poor women in rural Bangladesh. Data were collected from the 1998 sample survey of 500 mothers aged 15–49 years who had at least one child aged <5 years. Findings revealed that the socio-demographic factors such as the age of the woman, land ownership of the family and occupation of husband had no association with the prevalence of maternal knowledge. The knowledge was much greater among credit forum participants than non-participants, although exposure to the media and the education of women had also played a significant role in raising the level of knowledge. Multivariate analysis suggested that the duration of credit programme participation and exposure to the media were significantly more likely to raise the health knowledge among women when the influence of demographic and socio-economic factors were controlled. The paper concludes that the micro-credit programme can be an effective tool in promoting health among poor women in Bangladesh.
Key words: Bangladesh; credit programme; health knowledge
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPSUMMARYINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONACKNOWLEDGEMENTSREFERENCES |
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The need of increasing maternal health knowledge to reduce morbidity and mortality in childhood has been widely reported (WHO, 1984; Aung et al., 1994
), although the level of awareness has remained very poor in the developing countries (Nichter and Nichter, 1994; Hussain et al., 1997). Community-based intervention to promote health knowledge has been launched in many countries (Davis and Reis, 1988; Huang et al., 1994; Tembo, 1995), but the assessment of such attempts indicates that the achievements have been minimal (Huang et al., 1994; Laverack et al., 1997).
Although Crane and Carswell reported that long-term behavioural change among the marginalized groups might be difficult through education only (Crane and Carswell, 1992), health communication through mass media has been found to be effective in raising knowledge and facilitating behavioural change (Valente et al., 1996). Various health communication strategies such as interpersonal meetings and the use of mass media have been adopted to disseminate knowledge. Health education through drama and songs was also a very popular mode of communication (Tembo, 1995). Several socio-economic and individual factors may influence the health communication process. Among these, educational achievement in raising health knowledge has received attention in recent years (Crane and Carswell, 1992; Huang et al., 1994; Power, 1996; Hussain et al., 1997). Poor female education was found to be an important impediment to the use of health knowledge in Bangladesh (Guldan et al., 1993).
One major reason for high morbidity and mortality in Bangladesh is the lack of maternal knowledge about the need for prenatal care and preventative measures. For example, only 14.8% mothers were aware of the sources of treatment for acute respiratory infections (Hadi, 1999). Despite the significant expansion of health services in the last two decades in the countryside, the health status has remained poor in Bangladesh (BBS, 1995).
Several health promotion approaches, ranging from individual contacts to the use of popular arts, were attempted in Bangladesh. Studies reported that interpersonal communication was more effective than the entertainment approach when the messages were targeted to the general public (Hussain et al.,1997). Health promotion through raising the status of women was tried in many countries (Amin and Li, 1997; Manderson and Mark, 1997). The assumption was that women would become more interested in their own health and health care if their status and rights were improved. Reaching the poor and women was considered essential for any effective health system because, as found in many studies, the carefully designed programme could significantly change health behaviour (Rogers, 1996). In this paper, the contribution of micro-credit programmes in improving health knowledge among poor women in rural Bangladesh is examined.
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METHODS |
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Credit forum as a media
Both the government and non-government organizations (NGOs) have directed considerable resources for promoting health and health care services in Bangladesh. The dissemination of health messages through mass media, the observance of health campaigns, the use of a community health educator and routine counselling services at the health care facilities were important components of health promotion. Many such promotional components were inappropriately designed to reach the poor living in remote areas of the country. While the conventional approaches in reaching the poor were largely ineffective in producing the desired outcome, micro-credit-based development programmes, introduced primarily by the NGOs in the mid-1970s, were regarded as successful because of their emphasis on the planned intervention at grassroots level (Uphoff, 1993
; BRAC, 1999). The programme included not only the collateral-free credit for rural poor women, but a package of support services such as group meetings, skills training, basic literacy and primary health care services. The programme had the ability to sensitize poor women and initiate the process of change. The major health promotional activities of credit programmes were social awareness education courses for poor women each year, monthly meetings on an issue relevant to their life such as violence against women, human rights, etc., and essential health care including family planning, water and sanitation, immunization, nutrition education and basic curative services (BRAC, 1996). The dissemination sessions were conducted by BRAC officials with the help of community health volunteers. The community volunteers mobilized rural women to receive these services and played proactive roles in organizing satellite clinics, EPI (expanded programme on immunization) centres and other health service campaigns. The purpose was to raise awareness about various dimensions of health and health care among the participants of the credit programmes.
The survey
Data for this study were collected from a demographic and health surveillance system covering 70 villages in 10 regions of Bangladesh, where BRAC and a number of local NGOs had credit-based income-generating activities. Only women from poor households were eligible to participate in such development forums where they were entitled to receive not only credit support and skill training, but also had the opportunity to discuss their problems and possible ways of solving them. To identify the poor households in rural areas, NGOs generally consider landless households where adult members sell their manual labour to others for survival. In this study, the eligible participants were defined as the women in those households where the breadwinners were labourers and each household owned <50 decimals of land. Not all women of the poor and eligible households participated in NGO-led credit programmes. The sample women were categorized into four groups:
- poor women who participated in the credit programme for <5 years;
- poor women who participated for
5 years;
- poor women who were eligible to participate but were never involved in any programme; and
- women of non-eligible, non-poor households.
This four-cell comparison allowed us to assess the effects of credit forum on the health knowledge of women in the study communities.
The surveillance system database provided the sampling frame of women who had at least one child <5 years of age. A systematic random sampling technique was followed to select 50 women from each of the 10 study regions. In total, 500 women were interviewed in January 1998, which provided us with the basic socio-economic characteristics of women and details of their involvement with NGO-led credit forums in the community.
Model specification
The basic assumption to be examined in this study was that the participation of the women in credit forums significantly raised their knowledge about pre- and postnatal health care. There were other variables in the analytical framework, such as the exposure of women to mass media, the age and education of women, husband occupation and amount of land owned by the household, that were expected to change the role of the credit forum with respect to health knowledge.
The contribution of the credit forum to maternal health knowledge was assessed by a logistic regression model. The main independent variables were women's participation in the credit forum and the exposure to mass media. The confounding variables added to the multivariate analysis were age and education of women, occupation of husband and land ownership. Age was coded in single years. Education of women was coded as some or no education. Husband occupation was dichotomized as farm and non-farm. Land ownership was a continuous variable presented in decimals.
This study has certain limitations. It should be noted that cross-sectional data without random assignment of sample women between non-participation and participation in the credit forum might generate biased estimates because women who were relatively innovative might be more likely than others to join the credit forum activities (Pitt et al., 1999). In the absence of longitudinal data, the influence of endogeneity or selection bias was adjusted by employing multivariate analyses (Aldrich and Nelson, 1984).
Analytical procedure
Only the relevant aspects of health care that the NGOs addressed in the credit forums were considered in selecting outcome variables. Two aspects such as pre- and postnatal care were focused on in this study using three variables in each type. In measuring knowledge about prenatal care, each woman was assessed as to whether: (i) she was aware of the need for the tetanus toxoid (TT) vaccine during pregnancy; (ii) she had knowledge about (iron or vitamin) supplementation; and (iii) she mentioned the need for routine prenatal health check-ups. For the knowledge of postnatal care, each woman was asked whether she: (i) knew the correct number of doses of EPI; (ii) could mention at least three names of EPI-preventable diseases; and (iii) had knowledge of at least three preventive measures (such as breastfeeding, immunization, nutrition intake, use of safe drinking water, antenatal care, etc.) against child mortality.
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RESULTS |
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Profile of the sample women
The differences in socio-demographic characteristics between sample women by their participation in a credit forum were very wide (Table 1
). Women who participated in micro-credit forum activities were generally older than non-participants, as reflected in the mean number and proportion of age groups (p < 0.01). Illiteracy among women was widespread in the study villages as only 25.6% of women went to school. The poor and non-participants were the most deprived of education as only 10.2% of them had some schooling, while 19% of participants went to school (p < 0.05). After joining the credit programme, women were expected to participate in adult literacy sessions, which might have raised the literacy among forum participants. Nearly 69% of the households were landless. While landlessness was less prevalent among the non-poor, it appeared that the forum participants and non-participants were equally poor in terms of owning land holdings. Non-farm activities dominated occupational distribution (57.2%) of adult men in the study villages. The distribution of spousal occupation indicated significant (p < 0.01) differences among the poor, as nearly two-thirds of husbands of the non-participants compared with only 38% of husbands of participants were engaged in farm activities. Exposure to media in rural settings in Bangladesh was very poor, as only 27.6% women had access to electronic media. When poor women were compared, non-participants appeared to be less exposed (p < 0.01) than forum participants.
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The results do not clearly show whether NGOs failed to reach most of the poor women or whether the socio-demographic differences between the participants and non-participants were the outcome of participation in micro-credit forums. The existence of selection bias to become the participant of credit forum activities cannot be ignored. This finding supports the assumption that only a small proportion of the very poor had access to micro-credit programmes (Pitt et al., 1999
).
Prenatal care
Among the three types of prenatal care examined, knowledge of tetanus vaccines during pregnancy was widespread (60.2%), in contrast to that of the need for vitamin and iron supplementation (13.6%) and routine medical check-ups (6%) by qualified health care providers (Table 2). All three types of knowledge of prenatal care differed according to the socio-economic characteristics of the women, but these differences were statistically insignificant in most cases. For example, the age of women had no significant relationship to health knowledge during pregnancy, except with respect to tetanus vaccines. Similarly, neither the land ownership of the household nor the occupation of the husband had any significant relationship to any types of knowledge of prenatal care. Among the three communication factors, the participation in a micro-credit forum appeared to have a positive association with the maternal knowledge of prenatal care. Media exposure had a strong correlation with prenatal care, except regarding tetanus vaccines. Contrary to our assumption, the role of education among women in raising knowledge was not prominent, except with respect to tetanus vaccines.
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The net effects of the credit forum participation on the three types of prenatal care were examined by using logit regression analysis (Table 3
). The regression equations were controlled for the age and education of women, the exposure to mass media, the husband's occupation and the amount of land owned. The participation in micro-credit-based development forums had a significant positive effect on the knowledge of prenatal care. Data show that the duration of participation tended to raise the odds ratios for all three indicators of prenatal care. The findings demonstrate that the longer a woman participated in a credit forum, the greater the likelihood that her knowledge about prenatal care would increase. As found in other studies, exposure to media also played a significant role in raising prenatal health knowledge (Valente et al.,1996), except with respect to tetanus vaccines. Maternal education was also positively associated with tetanus vaccines (p < 0.05).
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Postnatal care
Maternal knowledge about postnatal care was better than prenatal care, as >52% of women knew the correct number of doses of EPI, about three-quarters could mention at least three names of EPI-preventable diseases, and more than one-third had knowledge of at least three measures that prevent child death (Table 4
). The socio-demographic factors such as age of the woman, land ownership of the households and occupation of the husband had no significant association with knowledge of any type of postnatal care. Among the communication variables, the participation of women in a micro-credit forum improved the knowledge of three types of postnatal care. Data also shows that mass media were effective in raising knowledge and facilitating behaviour change (Valente et al., 1996). The education of women significantly modified maternal knowledge of postnatal care in Bangladesh, as reported by others (Guldan et al., 1993).
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The net effects of a micro-credit forum on three indicators of prenatal care were estimated, as shown in Table 5
, where it appeared that credit forum participation had some positive effects (p < 0.05) in gaining knowledge about correct doses of EPI, probably because participants had better opportunities to learn about health care than non-participants. Knowledge of EPI-preventable diseases was significantly higher among forum participants than non-participants, which increased with the duration of participation. Similarly, knowledge of the role of EPI in reducing child morbidity and mortality was significantly higher among participants than others. The findings demonstrate that the health messages received by women from various credit programme sources can contribute to improving postnatal health knowledge among women.
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DISCUSSION |
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This study demonstrates that credit-based development forums can be effectively used in improving health knowledge among poor rural women. Although the knowledge level has remained very low among the poor, significant improvement is possible if appropriate health promotion measures are taken. Several media were used to promote health knowledge in rural Bangladesh, such as discussion meetings, newspaper articles, posters and billboards displayed in public places, films, and songs on the radio and television. These efforts were able to reach only a segment of the target audience. It has remained unclear why such media were not able to improve health knowledge effectively. One explanation has been that poor women, being the most disadvantaged group in the society, were not able to understand clearly most of the health messages. They could not relate the contents of the health information to their experience, thinking processes and reference points in their life. The conventional health information was not targeted to any specific groups but designed to cover the whole population. As a result, the receptiveness to information content varied widely according to the level of education, the occupation and the socio-economic status of recipients. More often than not, the audience played a passive role and paid little attention to what they heard or saw. The factors that create interest, such as relevance and social appropriateness, were not adequately considered in designing the health promotion system (Lewis, 1994
). The credit-based communication approach, on the other hand, pays more attention to the need of the listeners and their ability to understand than the significance of information. As most of the target women were illiterate, print media were not considered appropriate for them. On the other hand, electronic media such as television were not affordable to most households. Thus, focus group discussion was considered the most suitable media through which to disseminate health knowledge amongst poor women. One major feature of this approach has been the integration of health promotion with other development programmes. The eligibility to receive credit from BRAC requires that the woman should know basic health practices. Compared with the other women, the credit recipients pay more attention to health promotion activities in order to retain their eligibility to receive credit, free education for their children and subsidized health care for their family members. Participants in the group meetings were largely homogeneous in terms of age and socio-economic status, and were able to interact freely with a woman health promoter in the community setting. The discussion created an environment able to modify the health behaviour of the participants through their interactions with each other and with the credit programme staff. The process of change, however, would depend on the social and cultural context with respect to where the women live and how they interact.
The strength of this approach was its flexibility in conducting the health promotion sessions. The participants had to select the venue, date and the topic of the meeting. As a result, the discussion was more relevant and appropriate to their needs. The system of accommodating their concerns provided them with a sense of closeness with the discussion sessions. The mode of conducting meetings was also flexible so that it could be changed or modified if necessary during the session.
One feature of the micro-credit programme was a mandatory health check-up for each credit recipient at the time of receiving services. In a way, the participants were given additional opportunities to discuss their health problems with a paramedic and recollect what they had learned earlier. Such reinforcement had significant positive effects in understanding the messages. This was reflected previously, where women involved in credit programmes for longer knew more than others.
Health promotion at the grassroots level was costly when it was a one-dimensional programme. The credit-based health promotion was cost-effective since other components, such as income-generating activities, adult literacy and basic curative services, were added to the package. The study concludes that a carefully designed integrated development programme can significantly increase health knowledge among poor women in developing countries (Davis and Reis, 1988; Rogers, 1996).
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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TOPSUMMARYINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONACKNOWLEDGEMENTSREFERENCES |
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This study was supported by the ‘Strengthening Research and Evaluation Activities in BRAC’ project of the Ford Foundation, Dhaka, Bangladesh. The author wishes to thank the respondents who were kind enough to provide information for this research.
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